Nature-based solutions knowledge gaps

The knowledge gap database compiles an evidence base for Nature-based Solutions, to support defining research and innovation avenues, and bolster policy and practitioners’ knowledge and knowledge-implementation. This database, first published in 2021 and updated in June 2024, aggregates knowledge gaps and research needs identified through extensive desk research, drawing from academic and non-academic sources. For a detailed explanation of the methodology and analysis behind the 2024 update, please refer to this NetworkNature report. For more context on the initial database see the NetworkNature report on practical, research, and innovation needs.

The updated database includes additional 619 gaps categorised into 32 broad topics and 11 types of approaches. This marks a significant expansion from the initial database, established in 2021, which contained 172 knowledge gaps. Covering gaps from 2017 to March 2024, this database will be continually updated throughout the duration of NetworkNature+.

Displaying 501 - 550 of 619
Gap description Origin of source Source Resource Broad topic Types of approaches
Although the environmental benefits of some agroforestry practices are generally well understood by farmers, these barriers prevent them from choosing to implement agroforestry practices on their farmland. To address the disconnect,
knowledge of the on-farm social and economic impacts of agroforestry is vital. 		Desk Study Scientific literature

Castle, S.E., Miller, D.C., Merten, N. et al. Evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on ecosystem services and human well-being in high-income countries: a systematic map. Environ Evid 11, 10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-022-00260-5
  • Socio-economic benefits
  • Impact assessment
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Surprisingly, there was limited research on the profitability of agroforestry systems in HICs {High Income Countries}. This is a key gap in our understanding when we consider the barriers to agroforestry adoption. There is likely a difficulty in capturing the productivity and profitability dimensions of agroforestry systems since these systems take a long time to mature, requiring substantial, long-term data beyond typical funding cycles. Desk Study Scientific literature

Castle, S.E., Miller, D.C., Merten, N. et al. Evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on ecosystem services and human well-being in high-income countries: a systematic map. Environ Evid 11, 10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-022-00260-10
  • Cost/benefit evaluations
  • Ecosystem-based water management
There was also a surprising lack of studies on orchard meadows, given that these types of systems are likely more profitable to farmers and widely practiced, particularly in Europe. Desk Study Scientific literature

Castle, S.E., Miller, D.C., Merten, N. et al. Evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on ecosystem services and human well-being in high-income countries: a systematic map. Environ Evid 11, 10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-022-00260-13
  • Knowledge base
 -
Finally, there was little evidence for urban agroforestry. This is in part due to our
comparator criteria, as several studies on urban agroforestry systems took inventory of the species and nutrition provided by those systems without providing any relevant comparator for those outcomes. 		Desk Study Scientific literature

Castle, S.E., Miller, D.C., Merten, N. et al. Evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on ecosystem services and human well-being in high-income countries: a systematic map. Environ Evid 11, 10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-022-00260-14
  • Knowledge base
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Overall, there is an apparent lack of impact evaluations for agroforestry programs and policies in HICs {High Income Countries}. Desk Study Scientific literature

Castle, S.E., Miller, D.C., Merten, N. et al. Evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on ecosystem services and human well-being in high-income countries: a systematic map. Environ Evid 11, 10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-022-00260-15
  • Impact assessment
  • Ecosystem-based water management
There are important research and synthesis gaps on the impacts of agroforestry on social outcomes, particularly economic and human well-being outcomes. Desk Study Scientific literature

Castle, S.E., Miller, D.C., Merten, N. et al. Evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on ecosystem services and human well-being in high-income countries: a systematic map. Environ Evid 11, 10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-022-00260-21
  • Impact assessment
  • Impacts for health and well-being
  • Socio-economic benefits
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Additionally, evidence synthesis is needed on the impacts to agricultural productivity,
as well as the impacts on agroforestry on income and household expenditure. These syntheses may need to derive data from field trials not included in this SM {Systematic Map} as well as the on-farm studies included in this SM, as much of the literature on yield and economics comes from field trials and there is as yet limited evidence from on-farm studies on these outcomes. 		Desk Study Scientific literature

Castle, S.E., Miller, D.C., Merten, N. et al. Evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on ecosystem services and human well-being in high-income countries: a systematic map. Environ Evid 11, 10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-022-00260-23
  • Socio-economic benefits
  • Ecosystem-based agricultural management
One area for potential systematic review is on the relative advantages and disadvantages
between different practices integrating trees and livestock, i.e., planting trees into pasture versus thinning trees from forests for grazing. There is substantial evidence for both types of practices, and further evidence synthesis of this literature could contribute towards understanding the differences in productivity and ecosystem services based on land use history. {...} A better understanding of the differences between silvopasture and forest grazing could help extension agents make recommendations to farmers. 		Desk Study Scientific literature

Castle, S.E., Miller, D.C., Merten, N. et al. Evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on ecosystem services and human well-being in high-income countries: a systematic map. Environ Evid 11, 10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-022-00260-24
  • Effectiveness compared to conventional approaches
  • Impact assessment
  • Technical references, design standards and guidelines
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Similarly, evidence synthesis considering the scale of the impact of agroforestry practices, i.e., how agroforestry effects ecosystem services and human well-being outcomes on the farm and across the landscape, would be another key area for future synthesis. Desk Study Scientific literature

Castle, S.E., Miller, D.C., Merten, N. et al. Evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on ecosystem services and human well-being in high-income countries: a systematic map. Environ Evid 11, 10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-022-00260-28
  • Impact assessment
  • Impacts for health and well-being
  • Effectiveness at different geographical scales
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Additionally, although there was considerable literature on the impacts of agroforestry on
carbon sequestration, there was a surprising lack of evaluation of agroforestry for climate change adaptation and mitigation. Agroforestry is broadly promoted as a potential pathway to help as a climate change solution through system resiliency and diversification; however, there was little evidence supporting this that met our criteria as an impact study. 		Desk Study Scientific literature

Castle, S.E., Miller, D.C., Merten, N. et al. Evidence for the impacts of agroforestry on ecosystem services and human well-being in high-income countries: a systematic map. Environ Evid 11, 10 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-022-00260-33
  • Direct and indirect benefits for climate mitigation and adaptation
  • Impact assessment
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Therefore, it highlighted the need to better understand the flows of knowledge and of material and financial resources between plantain farmers and other actors within the innovation system to identify those currently promoting or locking these technical solutions at the territorial scale, especially the most influential actors. Such knowledge would facilitate the design of organizational innovations found to be the key to support the agroecological transition. Desk Study Scientific literature

Bezard, M., Barlagne, C., Diman, JL. et al. Co-designing innovative plantain cropping systems to support the diversity of agroecological pathways in Guadeloupe. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 43, 28 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-023-00879-8
  • Approaches and governance systems for implementation
  • Awareness and capacity building
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Carbon sequestration capacity was the greatest knowledge gap for all types of AFSs {Agroforestry systems}. We found high percentages of lack of evidence in silvopasture and protective systems (86%), intercropping systems (77%) and multistrata systems (75%). Desk Study Scientific literature

Silva-Galicia, A., Valencia, V., Arroyo-Rodríguez, V. et al. Weight-of-evidence approach for assessing agroforestry contributions to restore key ecosystem services in tropical dry forests. Agroforest Syst 97, 151–161 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-022-00794-z
  • Direct and indirect benefits for climate mitigation and adaptation
  • Ecosystem-based agricultural management
Trait-service relationships, also referred to as trait-benefit relationships, describe the mechanistic links between certain effect traits and the ecosystem services and downstream benefits they provide to citizens. Since many of these relationships still need to be studied, identifying them is crucial for planning and managing VGI {Vegetated Green Infrastructure} to provide desired ecosystem services. Desk Study Scientific literature

Jocelyn E Behm, Nadège Bélouard, Jason M Gleditsch, Payton M Phillips, Timothy M Swartz, Trait-based approaches for understanding how biodiversity generates sustainable benefits in urban vegetated green infrastructure, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, Volume 57, 2022, 101204, ISSN 1877-3435, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2022.101204.
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • Technical references, design standards and guidelines
  • Socio-economic benefits
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
While numerous trait-service relationships have been studied, many linkages have yet to be unraveled and more studies are needed that directly assess relationships between several candidate effect traits and a focal service to determine which trait(s) is associated with the service. Desk Study Scientific literature

Jocelyn E Behm, Nadège Bélouard, Jason M Gleditsch, Payton M Phillips, Timothy M Swartz, Trait-based approaches for understanding how biodiversity generates sustainable benefits in urban vegetated green infrastructure, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, Volume 57, 2022, 101204, ISSN 1877-3435, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2022.101204.
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
Literature on the economic performance of agroforestry systems has little knowledge synthesis. Desk Study Scientific literature

Thiesmeier, Alma & Zander, Peter. (2023). Can agroforestry compete? A scoping review of the economic performance of agroforestry practices in Europe and North America. Forest Policy and Economics. 150. 10.1016/j.forpol.2023.102939.
  • Cost/benefit evaluations
  • Communication
  • Ecosystem-based water management
We can also make no definitive statements on the economic performance of AFS {Agroforestry Systems} under changing climate conditions since we lack knowledge on how AF and their systems components would behave. Research on plot-level risk is available from very few locations and only one study took future climate events into accounts. Desk Study Scientific literature

Thiesmeier, Alma & Zander, Peter. (2023). Can agroforestry compete? A scoping review of the economic performance of agroforestry practices in Europe and North America. Forest Policy and Economics. 150. 10.1016/j.forpol.2023.102939.
  • Risks from slow-onset events
  • Risks from slow-onset events
  • Effectiveness at different geographical scales
  • Ecosystem-based adaptation
Studies on the mitigation potential of AF {Agroforestry} on a landscape or regional level
would be needed. 		Desk Study Scientific literature

Thiesmeier, Alma & Zander, Peter. (2023). Can agroforestry compete? A scoping review of the economic performance of agroforestry practices in Europe and North America. Forest Policy and Economics. 150. 10.1016/j.forpol.2023.102939.
  • Direct and indirect benefits for climate mitigation and adaptation
  • Effectiveness at different geographical scales
  • Ecosystem-based mitigation
Research gaps exist for silvopastoral and agro-silvopastoral AF {Agroforestry}, economic risk, and economic performance under future climate conditions. More field trials are needed to find successful and site specific AFS over a wide range of locations. The discipline of AF economics uses diverse methodologies which makes comparison difficult. Desk Study Scientific literature

Thiesmeier, Alma & Zander, Peter. (2023). Can agroforestry compete? A scoping review of the economic performance of agroforestry practices in Europe and North America. Forest Policy and Economics. 150. 10.1016/j.forpol.2023.102939.
  • Effectiveness at different geographical scales
  • Risks from slow-onset events
  • Impact assessment
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Another topic for further research is risk, specifically plot- and farm level economic risk under changing climatic conditions. While some studies state benefits from portfolio diversification that reduce financial risk and increase resilience there is insufficient scientific evidence for it. Desk Study Scientific literature

Thiesmeier, Alma & Zander, Peter. (2023). Can agroforestry compete? A scoping review of the economic performance of agroforestry practices in Europe and North America. Forest Policy and Economics. 150. 10.1016/j.forpol.2023.102939.
  • Risks from slow-onset events
  • Impact assessment
  • Cost/benefit evaluations
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Mapping these local PAs {Protected Areas} and other adaptation measures that explore nature-based solutions, including the protection and restoration of freshwater ecosystems to prevent climate-related risks such as hydrological changes, could provide a well rounded assessment of current climate change adaptation and water provision efforts. Desk Study Scientific literature

Quenta-Herrera, E., Crespo-Pérez, V., Mark, B. G., Gonzales, A. L., & Kulonen, A. (2022). Mountain freshwater ecosystems and protected areas in the tropical Andes: insights and gaps for climate change adaptation. Environmental Conservation, 49(1), 17–26. doi:10.1017/S0376892921000382
  • Direct and indirect benefits for climate mitigation and adaptation
  • Protected area management
  • Ecosystem-based adaptation
However, we might have underestimated or overestimated the real conditions as we used global inventories and because freshwater ecosystems and glaciers are dynamic and changing in response to climatic conditions. Therefore, more detailed inventories within and around PAs {Protected Areas} are needed for the better design of freshwater conservation. Future lake inventories might include climate related impacts such as the increase in the number of lakes due to glacier retreat and water evaporation. Desk Study Scientific literature

Quenta-Herrera, E., Crespo-Pérez, V., Mark, B. G., Gonzales, A. L., & Kulonen, A. (2022). Mountain freshwater ecosystems and protected areas in the tropical Andes: insights and gaps for climate change adaptation. Environmental Conservation, 49(1), 17–26. doi:10.1017/S0376892921000382
  • Protected area management
  • Technical references, design standards and guidelines
  • Risks from slow-onset events
  • Area-based conservation approaches
Studies on the role of organic matter decomposition by aquatic invertebrates for maintaining water quality inside and outside PAs {Protected Areas} are required. Desk Study Scientific literature

Quenta-Herrera, E., Crespo-Pérez, V., Mark, B. G., Gonzales, A. L., & Kulonen, A. (2022). Mountain freshwater ecosystems and protected areas in the tropical Andes: insights and gaps for climate change adaptation. Environmental Conservation, 49(1), 17–26. doi:10.1017/S0376892921000382
  • Protected area management
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • Area-based conservation approaches
Further research is also needed to determine the ecological and social impacts of marine PADDD {Protected Area Downgrading, Downsizing and Degazettement} events, which are currently unknown. Realtime automated identification system (AIS) vessel tracking and associated fishing activity data (e.g., Global Fishing Watch) could support this effort. Desk Study Scientific literature

Renee Albrecht, Carly N. Cook, Olive Andrews, Kelsey E. Roberts, Martin F.J. Taylor, Michael B. Mascia, Rachel E. Golden Kroner, Protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD) in marine protected areas, Marine Policy, Volume 129, 2021, 104437, ISSN 0308-597X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104437.
  • Protected area management
  • Socio-economic benefits
  • Impact assessment
  • Area-based conservation approaches
Future research should also explore the biophysical and sociopolitical risk factors associated with higher probabilities of PADDD {Protected Area Downgrading, Downsizing and Degazettement in MPAs {Marine Protected Areas}, complementing studies in terrestrial PAs. Desk Study Scientific literature

Renee Albrecht, Carly N. Cook, Olive Andrews, Kelsey E. Roberts, Martin F.J. Taylor, Michael B. Mascia, Rachel E. Golden Kroner, Protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD) in marine protected areas, Marine Policy, Volume 129, 2021, 104437, ISSN 0308-597X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104437.
  • Protected area management
  • Impact assessment
  • Approaches and governance systems for implementation
  • Area-based conservation approaches
Rather, findings underscore the need for further research and proactive policy responses to address PADDD {Protected Area Downgrading, Downsizing and Degazettement} and sustain durable and effective MPAs {Marine Protected Areas}. Addressing this need will help safeguard ocean health over the long-term for the benefit of marine biodiversity and the people who depend upon it. Desk Study Scientific literature

Renee Albrecht, Carly N. Cook, Olive Andrews, Kelsey E. Roberts, Martin F.J. Taylor, Michael B. Mascia, Rachel E. Golden Kroner, Protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD) in marine protected areas, Marine Policy, Volume 129, 2021, 104437, ISSN 0308-597X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104437.
  • Planning and policy frameworks
  • Protected area management
  • Area-based conservation approaches
The effects of other types of GI {Green Infrastructure}, such as bioswales, on attentional fatigue recovery remain unexamined. This gap in knowledge limits our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying attention restoration from exposure to various forms of green infrastructure and the landscape characteristics that promote attention restoration. Desk Study Scientific literature

Jiang Xiangrong, Hu Yifan, Larsen Linda, Chang Chun-Yen, Sullivan William C. Impacts of urban green infrastructure on attentional functioning: insights from an fMRI study, Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 2023, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg…, 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1047993 1664-1078
  • Impacts for health and well-being
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
Future interdisciplinary research involving scholars with expertise in landscape architecture, urban planning, psychology, and neuroscience is needed to deepen our understanding of how nature can promote mental health. Desk Study Scientific literature

Jiang Xiangrong, Hu Yifan, Larsen Linda, Chang Chun-Yen, Sullivan William C. Impacts of urban green infrastructure on attentional functioning: insights from an fMRI study, Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 2023, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg…, 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1047993 1664-1078
  • Impacts for health and well-being
  • Interdisciplinary studies and methodologies
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
Further empirical evidence is needed to help us understand how understory forms of green infrastructure are related to human health. Desk Study Scientific literature

Jiang Xiangrong, Hu Yifan, Larsen Linda, Chang Chun-Yen, Sullivan William C. Impacts of urban green infrastructure on attentional functioning: insights from an fMRI study, Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 2023, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg…, 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1047993 1664-1078
  • Impacts for health and well-being
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
Future studies may continue to explore the effects of understory vegetation on human health. Desk Study Scientific literature

Jiang Xiangrong, Hu Yifan, Larsen Linda, Chang Chun-Yen, Sullivan William C. Impacts of urban green infrastructure on attentional functioning: insights from an fMRI study, Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 2023, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg…, 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1047993 1664-1078
  • Impacts for health and well-being
  • Performance and characteristics of plants
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
Researchers could also examine different green infrastructure combinations on psychological outcomes. By demonstrating the health benefits of specific green infrastructure combinations, we can apply these findings to landscape and urban design encouraging wider adoption of such interventions. Desk Study Scientific literature

Jiang Xiangrong, Hu Yifan, Larsen Linda, Chang Chun-Yen, Sullivan William C. Impacts of urban green infrastructure on attentional functioning: insights from an fMRI study, Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 2023, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg…, 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1047993 1664-1078
  • Impacts for health and well-being
  • Technical references, design standards and guidelines
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
It is necessary to establish a unified method to account for ecosystem values so that future research will be able to systematically describe the advantages, disadvantages, and application scenarios of each ecosystem asset and service. Desk Study Scientific literature

Xiaoting Pu, Wenguang Ding, Weifeng Ye, Xiaojuan Nan, Runqing Lu, Ecosystem service research in protected areas: A systematic review of the literature on current practices and future prospects, Ecological Indicators, Volume 154, 2023, 110817, ISSN 1470-160X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2023.110817.
  • Methodologies and tools for systematic evaluation
  • Valuation tools
  • Negative impacts
  • Area-based conservation approaches
More in-depth studies should be conducted based on the current trends to find characteristics based on the analysis of commonalities and focus on the key processes for the specific management objectives of different PAs {Protected Areas}, in order to better serve the ecosystem development and medium and long-term management planning of PAs. Desk Study Scientific literature

Xiaoting Pu, Wenguang Ding, Weifeng Ye, Xiaojuan Nan, Runqing Lu, Ecosystem service research in protected areas: A systematic review of the literature on current practices and future prospects, Ecological Indicators, Volume 154, 2023, 110817, ISSN 1470-160X, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2023.110817.
  • Protected area management
  • Effectiveness at different time scales
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • Area-based conservation approaches
For CCs {Conservation Concession} interdisciplinary research on livelihoods and resource access are fundamental to determining that conservation impacts are achieved while also preventing inequities that can result from exclusionary models. Desk Study Scientific literature

Bardales, Rocio & Hyde, Matthew & Gallo, Jenny & Boron, Valeria. (2022). National parks and conservation concessions: a comparison between mammal populations in two types of tropical protected areas in Ucayali, Peru. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 39. 10.1017/S0266467422000414.
  • Social cohesion and environmental justice
  • Interdisciplinary studies and methodologies
  • Impact assessment
  • Area-based conservation approaches
However, challenges remain, including limited technical expertise among farmers, inadequate governance frameworks, and the need for more focused research and development efforts to tailor agroforestry systems to different agro-ecological regions. Desk Study Scientific literature

Ghimire, Manisha & Khanal, Ashish & Bhatt, Deepa & Dahal, DhirajDatta & Giri, Suja. (2024). Agroforestry systems in Nepal: Enhancing food security and rural livelihoods – a comprehensive review. Food and Energy Security. 13. 10.1002/fes3.524.
  • Effectiveness at different geographical scales
  • Awareness and capacity building
  • Approaches and governance systems for implementation
  • Ecosystem-based agricultural management
Moreover, institutional aspects, policy processes, legal settings, and issues related to equity and justice are not sufficiently addressed in ES {Ecosystem Services} assessments or governance. Desk Study Scientific literature

Uta Schirpke, Genxu Wang, Emilio Padoa-Schioppa, Editorial: Mountain landscapes: Protected areas, ecosystem services, and future challenges, Ecosystem Services,
Volume 49, 2021, 101302, ISSN 2212-0416, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2021.101302.
  • Planning and policy frameworks
  • Social cohesion and environmental justice
 -
A stronger focus on interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary assessments could improve the understanding of complex relationships in mountain socio-ecological systems but, currently, social sciences such as anthropology or political ecology are largely underrepresented in ES {Ecosystem Services} studies. Desk Study Scientific literature

Uta Schirpke, Genxu Wang, Emilio Padoa-Schioppa, Editorial: Mountain landscapes: Protected areas, ecosystem services, and future challenges, Ecosystem Services, Volume 49, 2021, 101302, ISSN 2212-0416, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2021.101302.
  • Knowledge base
  • Interdisciplinary studies and methodologies
 -
However, existing research shows that there is still a lack of practices and applied approaches to achieve the multiple sustainable development goals and co-protection of cities in innovative and synergetic ways to use the ES {Ecosystem Services} provided by GI {Green Infrastructure} with network structures. Desk Study Scientific literature

Jiake Shen, Zhenwei Peng, Yuncai Wang, From GI, UGI to UAGI: Ecosystem service types and indicators of green infrastructure in response to ecological risks and human needs in global metropolitan areas, Cities, Volume 134, 2023, 104176, ISSN 0264-2751,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2022.104176.
  • Synergies and trade-offs between goals
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
More research is needed, however, to understand community perceptions of how GI {Green Infrastructure} mitigates the UHI {Urban Heat Islands} effect, how GI decreases the impacts of climate change at the local level, and how community residents would respond to the types and placement of GI in their neighborhoods. Desk Study Scientific literature

Meenar, Mahbubur & Rahman, Md & Russack, Jason & Bauer, Sarah & Kapri, Kul. (2023). “The Urban Poor and Vulnerable Are Hit Hardest by the Heat”: A Heat Equity Lens to Understand Community Perceptions of Climate Change, Urban Heat Islands, and Green Infrastructure. Land. 12. 2174. 10.3390/land12122174.
  • Direct and indirect benefits for climate mitigation and adaptation
  • Social cohesion and environmental justice
  • Effectiveness across socio-ecological contexts
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
However, to initiate heat equity planning in EJ {Environmental Justice} communities, more local research is needed to understand people’s perceptions of, and emotions related to, heat equity and their ability to adapt to heat. Desk Study Scientific literature

Meenar, Mahbubur & Rahman, Md & Russack, Jason & Bauer, Sarah & Kapri, Kul. (2023). “The Urban Poor and Vulnerable Are Hit Hardest by the Heat”: A Heat Equity Lens to Understand Community Perceptions of Climate Change, Urban Heat Islands, and Green Infrastructure. Land. 12. 2174. 10.3390/land12122174.
  • Effectiveness across socio-ecological contexts
  • Social cohesion and environmental justice
 -
In this context, future studies are suggested that analyze the economic viability of agroforestry systems, which contribute to the food security of the indigenous population according to their cultivation practices and species needs. Desk Study Scientific literature

Gonçalves CdBQ, Schlindwein MM, Martinelli GdC. Agroforestry Systems: A Systematic Review Focusing on Traditional Indigenous Practices, Food and Nutrition Security, Economic Viability, and the Role of Women. Sustainability. 2021; 13(20):11397. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011397
  • Socio-economic benefits
  • Social cohesion and environmental justice
  • Synergies and trade-offs between goals
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Furthermore, analyzing the reasons for implementing agroforestry systems, as well as the reduction in the adoption of these production practices, can be essential for the formulation and implementation of public policies. Desk Study Scientific literature

Gonçalves CdBQ, Schlindwein MM, Martinelli GdC. Agroforestry Systems: A Systematic Review Focusing on Traditional Indigenous Practices, Food and Nutrition Security, Economic Viability, and the Role of Women. Sustainability. 2021; 13(20):11397. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011397
  • Planning and policy frameworks
  • Knowledge base
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Advancing knowledge and understanding of how organizational function affects achievement may be a primary determinant of the extent to which ecological restoration can be considered a reliable global and local strategy for improving ecosystem services. Desk Study Scientific literature

Galatowitsch, Susan. (2022). Organizational capacity and ecological restoration. Restoration Ecology. 31. 10.1111/rec.13757.
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • Ecological restoration
There is a need for further research that replicates this in-depth approach to generate better understanding of the health and wellbeing benefits of participation in ecological restoration. Desk Study Scientific literature

Pauline Marsh, Stuart Auckland, Todd Dudley, Dave Kendal, Emily Flies, A mountain of health benefits? Impacts of ecological restoration activities on human wellbeing, Wellbeing, Space and Society, Volume 4, 2023, 100132, ISSN 2666-5581, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2023.100132. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666558123000064)
  • Impacts for health and well-being
  • Social cohesion and environmental justice
  • Stakeholder engagement
  • Ecological restoration
Although agroforestry in temperate regions is gaining more attention as we speak, there is still lack of knowledge about the functioning of modern agroforestry systems at the European level. Desk Study Scientific literature

Krčmářová J, Kala L, Brendzová A, Chabada T. Building Agroforestry Policy Bottom-Up: Knowledge of Czech Farmers on Trees in Farmland. Land. 2021; 10(3):278. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10030278
  • Effectiveness at different geographical scales
  • Ecosystem-based water management
In doing so, it may be important to examine the concept of social responsibility
when assessing the findings of prior and future studies on community‑related GI {Green Infrastructure} implementations. 		Desk Study Scientific literature

Herath HMMSD, Fujino T, Senavirathna MDHJ. A Review of Emerging Scientific Discussions on Green Infrastructure (GI)-Prospects towards Effective Use of Urban Flood Plains. Sustainability. 2023; 15(2):1227. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021229
  • Approaches and governance systems for implementation
  • Social cohesion and environmental justice
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
More deliberately addressing ecological functions as well as specific functional‑accessibility indicators, and measures on the quality of GI {Green Infrastructure} would contribute to a better understanding of GI planning and may motivate practitioners to develop examples of best practices on applying the ‘green gray’ approach. Desk Study Scientific literature

Herath HMMSD, Fujino T, Senavirathna MDHJ. A Review of Emerging Scientific Discussions on Green Infrastructure (GI)-Prospects towards Effective Use of Urban Flood Plains. Sustainability. 2023; 15(2):1227. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021234
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • Awareness and capacity building
  • Effectiveness of hybrid solutions
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
In addition, future research needs to collect more data and look into the benefits of GI’s {Green Infrastructure} multi‑functionality in more depth. It also needs to translate ecological, environmental, and social impacts into monetary terms to make the public more aware of sustainable GI implementations using the ‘green–gray’ approach . Desk Study Scientific literature

Herath HMMSD, Fujino T, Senavirathna MDHJ. A Review of Emerging Scientific Discussions on Green Infrastructure (GI)-Prospects towards Effective Use of Urban Flood Plains. Sustainability. 2023; 15(2):1227. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021235
  • Cost/benefit evaluations
  • Communication
  • Effectiveness of hybrid solutions
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
Even with the progress in ecosystem services (ESs) studies, we still lack a comprehensive
and satisfying understanding of the feedback and interactions among several ESs. They might both impair and support each other, which suggests an existence of a range of trade-offs and synergies. 		Desk Study Scientific literature

Shah AM, Liu G, Meng F, Yang Q, Xue J, Dumontet S, Passaro R, Casazza M. A Review of Urban Green and Blue Infrastructure from the Perspective of Food-Energy-Water Nexus. Energies. 2021; 14(15):4583. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154583
  • Synergies and trade-offs between goals
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • NbS interaction at the landscape scale
  • Ecosystem-based adaptation
In summary, we suggest three principal future steps to researchers, managers and users of these MPAs {Marine Protected Areas} to improve the local decision-making in the perspective of an adaptive ecosystem-based management: {...} (2) Improve the scientific knowledge about the biotic interactions (trophic relationships) to better understand the connections between the indicators and the ecosystem services (fish supply). Field experiments could be useful on this step and integrate this information with users perception about fishing patterns is also fundamental to assess the ecosystem services alterations at a holistic perspective. Desk Study Scientific literature

Laurino, Ivan & Serafini, Thiago & Costa, Tania & Christofoletti, Ronaldo. (2021). The role of estuarine macrofaunal patterns for the management of marine protected areas in a changing world. Journal for Nature Conservation. 10.1016/j.jnc.2021.126042.
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • Protected area management
  • Area-based conservation approaches
Moreover, the adaptive perspective suggested by the stakeholders, in practice, can also modify the management of MPAs {Marine Protected Areas} consistent with Ecosystem Approach principles. For this, the integration among continuous research, practical implementation, co-management and action-effective learning are necessary. Desk Study Scientific literature

Laurino, Ivan & Serafini, Thiago & Costa, Tania & Christofoletti, Ronaldo. (2021). The role of estuarine macrofaunal patterns for the management of marine protected areas in a changing world. Journal for Nature Conservation. 10.1016/j.jnc.2021.126042.
  • Approaches and governance systems for implementation
  • Protected area management
  • Stakeholder engagement
  • Area-based conservation approaches