The knowledge gap database compiles an evidence base for Nature-based Solutions, to support defining research and innovation avenues, and bolster policy and practitioners’ knowledge and knowledge-implementation. This database, first published in 2021 and updated in June 2024, aggregates knowledge gaps and research needs identified through extensive desk research, drawing from academic and non-academic sources. For a detailed explanation of the methodology and analysis behind the 2024 update, please refer to this NetworkNature report. For more context on the initial database see the NetworkNature report on practical, research, and innovation needs.
The updated database includes additional 619 gaps categorised into 32 broad topics and 11 types of approaches. This marks a significant expansion from the initial database, established in 2021, which contained 172 knowledge gaps. Covering gaps from 2017 to March 2024, this database will be continually updated throughout the duration of NetworkNature+.
| Gap description | Origin of source | Source | Resource | Broad topic | Types of approaches | |
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| This review revealed key knowledge gaps and future research priorities, which can be grouped into: (1) growing spaces and ecosystem services requiring further study; (2) the need for more systematic data collection and study design; and (3) embedding ecosystem services in a wider suitability and cost-benefit analysis for green infrastructure choices. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | D.L. Evans, N. Falagán, C.A. Hardman, S. Kourmpetli, L. Liu, B.R. Mead, J.A.C. Davies, Ecosystem service delivery by urban agriculture and green infrastructure – a systematic review, Ecosystem Services, Volume 54, 2022, 101405, ISSN 2212-0416, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2022.101405. |
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| For the majority of studies reviewed here, only the provision of ecosystem services was measured, and only after the urban agriculture and/or green infrastructure had been established. Comparatively scarce research was undertaken to assess the suitability of the growing environment, nor was there sufficient accounting of the start-up costs necessary to prepare these environments for growing. Yet, identifying and quantifying these financial, resource, and labour costs is important for allowing the most cost effective growing options to be selected. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | D.L. Evans, N. Falagán, C.A. Hardman, S. Kourmpetli, L. Liu, B.R. Mead, J.A.C. Davies, Ecosystem service delivery by urban agriculture and green infrastructure – a systematic review, Ecosystem Services, Volume 54, 2022, 101405, ISSN 2212-0416, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2022.101405. |
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| While cost-benefit analyses of different forms of urban greening have been explored, there is still a need to embed these more systematically into urban ecosystem service research. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | D.L. Evans, N. Falagán, C.A. Hardman, S. Kourmpetli, L. Liu, B.R. Mead, J.A.C. Davies, Ecosystem service delivery by urban agriculture and green infrastructure – a systematic review, Ecosystem Services, Volume 54, 2022, 101405, ISSN 2212-0416, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2022.101405. |
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| Previous analyses examining specific plan types, such as sustainability or comprehensive plans find that GI {Green Infrastructure} concepts are often inconsistently conceptualized, and their role in improving social well-being requires further elaboration. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Zbigniew J. Grabowski, Timon McPhearson, Steward T.A. Pickett, Transforming US urban green infrastructure planning to address equity, |
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| Additionally, opportunities also need to be created for advancing the knowledge on the cost-effectiveness of GI {Green Infrastructure} options considering other benefits (e.g., water quality improvements, amenity, recreation and public health) and alternative engineering designs (e.g., quality of open space and type of landscape or integration with transport systems) to specific locations. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Reu Junqueira, J., Serrao-Neumann, S. & White, I. (2023) Developing and testing a cost-effectiveness analysis to prioritize green infrastructure alternatives for climate change adaptation. Water and Environment Journal, 37(2), 242–255. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1111/wej.12832 |
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| The notion of the importance of trade-offs in spatial planning, leading to land-use or management choices with their resulting impact on the delivery of ecosystem services is thoroughly described by Turkelboom et al. (2018). They argue that knowledge on trade-offs within decision-making bodies is lacking and that insights in the causes and mechanisms behind such trade-offs would eventually lead to “more effective, efficient and credible management decisions”. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Wito Van Oijstaeijen, Steven Van Passel, Phil Back, Jan Cools, The politics of green infrastructure: A discrete choice experiment with Flemish local decision-makers, |
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| For ecosystem services valuation and ecosystem services knowledge utilization to progress, the benefit arguments should be expressed in terms that are demanded by decision makers, often in terms of direct and immediate impact. In this light and given the contribution of costs in decision making, we believe that research on GI’s {Green Infrastructure} ecosystem services generation, in relation to respective investment and maintenance costs, would positively impact the useability of results in local decision making. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Wito Van Oijstaeijen, Steven Van Passel, Phil Back, Jan Cools, The politics of green infrastructure: A discrete choice experiment with Flemish local decision-makers, |
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| Nevertheless, especially in the context of the European GI {Green Infrastructure} Strategy implementation, little evidence is available on how to select plant species to be primarily favored in dispersal and on the role of environmental heterogeneity and quality of habitat patches and corridors in facilitating/impairing such a dispersal. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Valeri S, Zavattero L, Capotorti G. Ecological Connectivity in Agricultural Green Infrastructure: Suggested Criteria for Fine Scale Assessment and Planning. Land. 2021; 10(8):807. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10080807 |
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| To our knowledge, there exist few studies that quantify potential impacts of agroforestry implementation on biomass harvest and carbon sequestration on a landscape scale in a temperate European context. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Bertsch-Hoermann, B., Egger, C., Gaube, V. et al. Agroforestry trade-offs between biomass provision and aboveground carbon sequestration in the alpine Eisenwurzen region, Austria. Reg Environ Change 21, 77 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01794-y |
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| To this end, future research should focus on quantifying trade-offs and synergies on a landscape scale involving different agroforestry compositions on a gradient of pre-existing land use intensity as well as additional land use types (e.g., forest), managing a balance of provisioning and regulating ES {Ecosystem Services} within a region’s larger socio ecological context. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Bertsch-Hoermann, B., Egger, C., Gaube, V. et al. Agroforestry trade-offs between biomass provision and aboveground carbon sequestration in the alpine Eisenwurzen region, Austria. Reg Environ Change 21, 77 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01794-y |
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| Further assessments of ES {Ecosystem Services} trade-offs, in particular in temperate and industrialized mountain agroecosystems, will be useful for informing policy decisions. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Bertsch-Hoermann, B., Egger, C., Gaube, V. et al. Agroforestry trade-offs between biomass provision and aboveground carbon sequestration in the alpine Eisenwurzen region, Austria. Reg Environ Change 21, 77 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01794-y |
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| Information is lacking on stocks of organic C in deeper layers where most tree roots occur and where supply of C substantially is generated through root exudates and fine-root turnover. Assessing soil C for global change scenarios requires an understanding of C pools in deeper layers, especially for both native and improved pastures, as is the case for Mediterranean agroforestry systems. |
Desk Study | Scientific literature | Carranca C, Pedra F, Madeira M. Enhancing Carbon Sequestration in Mediterranean Agroforestry Systems: A Review. Agriculture. 2022; 12(10):1598. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12101599 |
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| The interaction of pastures with trees in agroforestry systems also needs further studies with respect to the contribution of mycorrhizal systems to the efficiency of soil C storage. Increasing pasture productivity and root mass inputs to the soil is one key to enhance C stock, for example through the application of phosphorus and the sowing of productive pasture crops, possibly in combination with bred plant legumes, as in the “biodiverse Portuguese technique”. All this information is of utmost importance for policymakers and managers to establish guidelines regarding pastures with tree management in agroforestry systems towards better ecosystem stability and an improvement in service value that farmers and society have to take into account. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Carranca C, Pedra F, Madeira M. Enhancing Carbon Sequestration in Mediterranean Agroforestry Systems: A Review. Agriculture. 2022; 12(10):1598. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12101600 |
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| Combining some of these characteristics, agroforestry systems have a great potential for mitigation of CO2 by C sequestration. However, in order to realize the full potential of these systems for climate change mitigation, other GHGs such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) should be taken into account because there is a lack of studies on GHG emissions from agroforestry systems to fully support that. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Carranca C, Pedra F, Madeira M. Enhancing Carbon Sequestration in Mediterranean Agroforestry Systems: A Review. Agriculture. 2022; 12(10):1598. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12101603 |
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| The tree species in the agroforestry system and the way they are combined influence both the quantity and quality of the biomass returned to the soil. The contribution of belowground plant biomass to soil C pools (labile or stable) is attracting considerable interest in the particular context of GHG mitigation, but belowground biomass studies in agroforestry systems are problematic, where the dynamics of growth, decay, and turnover of roots is one of the least understood aspects Therefore, information on C stocks of belowground vegetation components are not usually reported, and those that have been reported lack scientific rigor. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Carranca C, Pedra F, Madeira M. Enhancing Carbon Sequestration in Mediterranean Agroforestry Systems: A Review. Agriculture. 2022; 12(10):1598. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12101604 |
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| Further research is needed to test our proposal that the social organizing of farmers is crucial in enabling the entry and progress of smallholder farmers along agroecological transition pathways. The organization of farmers, we believe, helps improve environmental stewardship, technical assistance, and the cultivation of new markets. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Liu, Chuang & Jiménez, Natalia & Rogé, Paul. (2023). Bottom-up attempts at agroecological transitions in China: The comparative cases of Sanliwan and Sanggang villages. Elem Sci Anth. 11. 10.1525/elementa.2019.00033. |
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| A future study could specifically ask survey respondents whether they implemented green infrastructure, why or why not, and what services or disservices they think it would provide. For example, it would be useful to understand whether, how, and in what contexts people think that different types of green infrastructure or vegetation meaningfully mitigate flooding and heat risks. |
Desk Study | Scientific literature | Meerow, S., Helmrich, A.M., Andrade, R. et al. How do heat and flood risk drive residential green infrastructure implementation in Phoenix, Arizona?. Urban Ecosyst 24, 989–1000 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-020-01088-x |
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| While we have examined a number of correlations between environmental risks and green infrastructure implementation, more in-depth research (e.g., interviews) would also be helpful in truly determining causation. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Meerow, S., Helmrich, A.M., Andrade, R. et al. How do heat and flood risk drive residential green infrastructure implementation in Phoenix, Arizona?. Urban Ecosyst 24, 989–1000 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-020-01088-x |
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| Exploring the links between the use of NbS, mindshifts and transformative urban coalitions to promote climate resilience within an ongoing reurbanization process. These include further exploration on transformative climate resilience, climate justice, and the use of NbS as a means to potentiate reurbanization processes so that they can support transformation and climate justice. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Hardoy Jorgelina, Motta Jorge Martín, Kozak Daniel, Almansi Florencia, Reverter Tomás, Costello Marcela. Exploring the links between the use of NbS, mindshifts and transformative urban coalitions to promote climate resilience within an ongoing reurbanization process. The case of Villa 20, Buenos Aires. Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, 4, 2022. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frsc.2022.962168 |
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| There are still few studies on how informal settlement upgrading or re urbanization engages with climate change mitigation and adaptation. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Hardoy Jorgelina, Motta Jorge Martín, Kozak Daniel, Almansi Florencia, Reverter Tomás, Costello Marcela. Exploring the links between the use of NbS, mindshifts and transformative urban coalitions to promote climate resilience within an ongoing reurbanization process. The case of Villa 20, Buenos Aires. Frontiers in Sustainable Cities, 4, 2022. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frsc.2022.962168 DOI=10.3389/frsc.2022.962169 |
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| Finally, despite a wide variety of literature on the design, planning, engineering, and ecology of small-scale UGI {Urban Green Infrastructure}, the governance dimensions of such spaces to support ES {Ecosystem Services} have, to date, received significantly less research attention. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Razzaghi Asl, S.; Pearsall, H. How Do Different Modes of Governance Support Ecosystem Services/Disservices in Small-Scale Urban Green Infrastructure? A Systematic Review. Land 2022, 11, 1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11081247 |
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| However, there is little research that compares how different governance approaches address ES {Ecosystem Services} in small-scale green infrastructure. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Razzaghi Asl, S.; Pearsall, H. How Do Different Modes of Governance Support Ecosystem Services/Disservices in Small-Scale Urban Green Infrastructure? A Systematic Review. Land 2022, 11, 1247. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11081247 |
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| For the systematic monitoring, evaluation, replication, and upscaling of NBS, research should address the scale that matches the scale of hazards and impact posed by climate change. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Sisay E. Debele, Laura S. Leo, Prashant Kumar, Jeetendra Sahani, Joy Ommer, Edoardo Bucchignani, Saša Vranić, Milan Kalas, Zahra Amirzada, Irina Pavlova, Mohammad Aminur Rahman Shah, Alejandro Gonzalez-Ollauri, Silvana Di Sabatino, Nature-based solutions can help reduce the impact of natural hazards: A global analysis of NBS case studies, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 902, 2023, 165824, ISSN 0048-9697, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165824. |
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| Additionally, there are challenges related to data availability and accessibility, as well as potential variations in data quality from different sources. Despite efforts to examine comprehensive databases and platforms, further research is needed to address these limitations. This can be achieved by enhancing the quality of data for NBS case studies. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Sisay E. Debele, Laura S. Leo, Prashant Kumar, Jeetendra Sahani, Joy Ommer, Edoardo Bucchignani, Saša Vranić, Milan Kalas, Zahra Amirzada, Irina Pavlova, Mohammad Aminur Rahman Shah, Alejandro Gonzalez-Ollauri, Silvana Di Sabatino, Nature-based solutions can help reduce the impact of natural hazards: A global analysis of NBS case studies, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 902, 2023, 165824, ISSN 0048-9697, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165824. |
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| NBS indicators play a crucial role in evaluating the effectiveness in climate adaptation from a social-ecological perspective. However, there is currently a lack of standardised indicators that can be used to assess the effectiveness of NBS across different scales and dimensions. As a result, it is necessary to develop context-specific indicators that are tailored to the specific circumstances in order to ensure the usability, scalability, and transferability of NBS. This approach will help minimise unintended consequences and enhance understanding at the local level, particularly in the face of changing climate conditions. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Sisay E. Debele, Laura S. Leo, Prashant Kumar, Jeetendra Sahani, Joy Ommer, Edoardo Bucchignani, Saša Vranić, Milan Kalas, Zahra Amirzada, Irina Pavlova, Mohammad Aminur Rahman Shah, Alejandro Gonzalez-Ollauri, Silvana Di Sabatino, Nature-based solutions can help reduce the impact of natural hazards: A global analysis of NBS case studies, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 902, 2023, 165824, ISSN 0048-9697, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165824. |
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| NBS plays an important role in achieving Net-Zero emissions by simultaneously reducing fossil fuel emissions. While NBS can contribute to mitigating the impact of climate change, it is important to prioritise further research on integrating them with solutions that result in significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and engineered carbon removal methods. This requires studying the interactions and synergies between NBS and traditional engineering solutions, as well as investigating the specific role of NBS in aligning with international agreements like the Paris Agreement and the SDGs. By focusing on these areas, we can better understand how NBS can effectively contribute to the overall goals of climate action and sustainable development. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Sisay E. Debele, Laura S. Leo, Prashant Kumar, Jeetendra Sahani, Joy Ommer, Edoardo Bucchignani, Saša Vranić, Milan Kalas, Zahra Amirzada, Irina Pavlova, Mohammad Aminur Rahman Shah, Alejandro Gonzalez-Ollauri, Silvana Di Sabatino, Nature-based solutions can help reduce the impact of natural hazards: A global analysis of NBS case studies, Science of The Total Environment, Volume 902, 2023, 165824, ISSN 0048-9697, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165824. |
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| Furthermore, in a review article about European agroforestry, Fagerholm et al. (2016) highlight that research on the linkages between agroforestry and ecosystem services have not been fully explored, suggesting a need for stronger consideration of stakeholder participation to define, map, value, and foster ecosystem services. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Rafflegeau, S., Gosme, M., Barkaoui, K. et al. The ESSU concept for designing, modeling and auditing ecosystem service provision in intercropping and agroforestry systems. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 43, 43 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-023-00894-9 |
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| In conclusion, the identified gap in the literature highlights the need for more comprehensive and integrated research that incorporates objective measurements of urban green infrastructure, considers accessibility, availability, biodiversity, and cumulative effects, and explores the link between contact with urban natural environments and perceived and physiological stress responses. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Li, L.; Lange, K.W. Assessing the Relationship between Urban Blue-Green Infrastructure and Stress Resilience in Real Settings: A Systematic Review. Sustainability 2023, 15, 9240. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129240 |
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| This review highlights the current research gap regarding the evidence-based effects of experiencing urban landscapes on coping with psychological and physiological stress. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Li, L.; Lange, K.W. Assessing the Relationship between Urban Blue-Green Infrastructure and Stress Resilience in Real Settings: A Systematic Review. Sustainability 2023, 15, 9240. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129241 |
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| Second, in experimental health research on the benefits of urban landscapes for stress reduction, the theoretical and evaluative basis for the design and measurement of urban landscapes often appears to be inadequate. Such a discrepancy is commonly found in many evidence-based and well-developed stress-related design studies. How exposure to urban landscapes in real settings is presented, designed, and objectively measured is often underrepresented compared to the evidence for stress response measurement. Therefore, we highlight the challenges of such unequal cross-disciplinary expertise in stress health research and environmental research. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Li, L.; Lange, K.W. Assessing the Relationship between Urban Blue-Green Infrastructure and Stress Resilience in Real Settings: A Systematic Review. Sustainability 2023, 15, 9240. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129242 |
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| The benefits of green spaces have been widely studied, but there are still gaps and challenges in measuring their impact on stress reduction. |
Desk Study | Scientific literature | Li, L.; Lange, K.W. Assessing the Relationship between Urban Blue-Green Infrastructure and Stress Resilience in Real Settings: A Systematic Review. Sustainability 2023, 15, 9240. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129243 |
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| Despite these gaps and challenges, it is crucial to gather interventional data on landscape contact distance, frequency, and duration to provide better opportunities for city dwellers to sustain frequent contact with green spaces. Cross-sectional studies that apply one-time visits to a site cannot demonstrate causality, and urban landscape data is often too abstract and general, lacking in-depth analyses of people’s behavior and experiences in specific green spaces. To gain a better understanding of the long-term effects of regular exposure to urban green spaces, especially concerning physiological health indicators, it is necessary to address these gaps and challenges in measuring stress reduction. Regular use of urban green spaces may amplify the benefits of green space availability on health, highlighting the importance of continued research in this area. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Li, L.; Lange, K.W. Assessing the Relationship between Urban Blue-Green Infrastructure and Stress Resilience in Real Settings: A Systematic Review. Sustainability 2023, 15, 9240. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129244 |
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| These discrepancies between studies may be attributed to the lack of evidence-based methods for landscape measurements in assessing their impact on health outcomes. Addressing these gaps and challenges is crucial for advancing our understanding of the effects of urban landscape interventions on health outcomes. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Li, L.; Lange, K.W. Assessing the Relationship between Urban Blue-Green Infrastructure and Stress Resilience in Real Settings: A Systematic Review. Sustainability 2023, 15, 9240. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129245 |
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| In light of the proposed ‘30 by 30’ target, further research is needed, based on more complex research designs, but also supported by better-quality data for environmental governance, PA {Protected Areas} site-level governance and conservation outcomes, to more robustly assess the role of different aspects of governance in achieving equitable and effective conservation in PAs and beyond. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Dehmel Naira, Franks Phil, Schreckenberg Kate, Beresford Alison, Buchanan Graeme, Dawson Terence P. Relating Country-Level Governance and Tree Cover Loss in Sub-Saharan African Protected Areas: Identifying Knowledge Gaps and a More Nuanced Perspective. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change. 5. 2022. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ffgc.2022.807214. 10.3389/ffgc.2022.807214 |
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| Emphasize calls for future research on social-ecological systems that include: cumulative effects, functioning and connectivity of systems, ecosystem goods and services, synthesis of empirical evidence with societal values for tradeoff analysis, implement cross-sectoral tools for ecosystem-based management advice, connections between management units, actions and the dynamics of the ecosystem. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Dickey-Collas, Mark & Link, Jason & Snelgrove, Paul & Roberts, J. & Anderson, M. & Kenchington, Ellen & Bundy, Alida & Brady, Margaret & Shuford, Rebecca & Townsend, Howard & Rindorf, Anna & Rudd, Murray & Johnson, David & Johannesen, Ellen. (2022). Exploring ecosystem‐based management in the North Atlantic. Journal of Fish Biology. 101. 10.1111/jfb.15168. |
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| A spatio-temporal assessment of development patterns at the national level would tell us whether there is any form of “interaction” between different Natura 2000 sites, with development repelled from around one site being shifted toward another, hence offsetting overall benefits. An in-depth analysis of urbanization patterns pre- and postestablishment of protected areas would highlight the benefits and potential unintended consequences (e.g. increased residential developments) of new protected areas on nearby territories. Finally, comparable studies could be conducted in other countries characterized by intense pressure on, and lack of development restrictions around, protected areas to see whether lower urban growth rates nearby protected areas are common. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Francesco Orsi, Solen Le Clec’h, Effects of protected areas on the expansion of impervious surfaces in their vicinity: Evidence from Dutch Natura 2000, |
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| To our knowledge, there has not been any systematic attempt at estimating the distance over which protected areas exert an effect on the rate of urban development on surrounding landscapes. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Francesco Orsi, Solen Le Clec’h, Effects of protected areas on the expansion of impervious surfaces in their vicinity: Evidence from Dutch Natura 2000, |
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| To further improve or develop new tools, researchers should also account for ecosystem disservices in order to assess the net benefits of GI {Green Infrastructure}. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Russo, A.; Chan, W.T.; Cirella, G.T. Estimating Air Pollution Removal and Monetary Value for Urban Green Infrastructure Strategies Using Web-Based Applications. Land 2021, 10, 788. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10080788 |
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| Despite the increasing number of frameworks and models integrating “social” data, they are still rare and often lack sufficient knowledge about decision-making to identify which kind of social factors matter and which need to be taken into account. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Pierre Chassé, Cécile Blatrix, Nathalie Frascaria-Lacoste, Determining the location of protected areas in France: Does “scientific interest” matter?, Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation, Volume 19, Issue 3, 2021, Pages 379-386, ISSN 2530-0644, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2021.03.006. |
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| Most conservation research still focuses on purely biological research, giving considerably less attention to the associated decision-making processes. Studies on PA {Protected Areas} location are no exception, and most concentrate on the improvement of biological data or algorithms. They therefore tend to ignore what has been called the “knowing-doing gap” or the “implementation crisis”: in other words, the gap between knowledge and achievements. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Pierre Chassé, Cécile Blatrix, Nathalie Frascaria-Lacoste, Determining the location of protected areas in France: Does “scientific interest” matter?, Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation, Volume 19, Issue 3, 2021, Pages 379-386, ISSN 2530-0644, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2021.03.006. |
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| In our opinion, solving the current biodiversity crisis is less related to the production and availability of biological knowledge than to the identification of obstacles responsible for the implementation crisis. It is now crucial for the scientific community to integrate the study of the relationship between knowledge and actors by questioning the role of expertise in policy decisions. To move in this direction, we call for the development of interdisciplinary research that combines the biological and social sciences. |
Desk Study | Scientific literature | Pierre Chassé, Cécile Blatrix, Nathalie Frascaria-Lacoste, Determining the location of protected areas in France: Does “scientific interest” matter?, Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation, Volume 19, Issue 3, 2021, Pages 379-386, ISSN 2530-0644, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2021.03.006. |
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| The lack of data on conservation decision-making processes leads to the widely shared misconception about the problem and its solution, which can be counterproductive. More than ever, the causes of this gap need to be better understood and addressed. |
Desk Study | Scientific literature | Pierre Chassé, Cécile Blatrix, Nathalie Frascaria-Lacoste, Determining the location of protected areas in France: Does “scientific interest” matter?, Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation, Volume 19, Issue 3, 2021, Pages 379-386, ISSN 2530-0644, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2021.03.006. |
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| Uneven geographic distribution of research and a lack of understanding of agroforestry benefits during specific climate hazards are a major knowledge gap to understanding the role of agroforestry for climate change adaptation. |
Desk Study | Scientific literature | Muthuri, Catherine & Kuyah, Shem & Njenga, Mary & Kuria, Anne & Oborn, Ingrid & Van Noordwijk, Meine. (2023). Agroforestry's contribution to livelihoods and carbon sequestration in East Africa: A systematic review. Trees, Forests and People. 14. 100432. 10.1016/j.tfp.2023.100432. |
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| However, a systematic understanding of agroforestry’s contribution to livelihoods and carbon storage is still lacking. This is because many of the existing reviews focused on the impact of agroforestry on crop productivity, mainly plot level experimental or observational studies. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Muthuri, Catherine & Kuyah, Shem & Njenga, Mary & Kuria, Anne & Oborn, Ingrid & Van Noordwijk, Meine. (2023). Agroforestry's contribution to livelihoods and carbon sequestration in East Africa: A systematic review. Trees, Forests and People. 14. 100432. 10.1016/j.tfp.2023.100432. |
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| There currently is no systematic understanding of how participatory scenarios are being used in ecological restoration, including the geographic and spatial scope through which they are applied, the types of restoration projects they are being used for and the restoration outcomes they are addressing. Moreover, despite calls for the need to include of a broad range of outcomes and indicators there is insufficient evidence this is the case. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Moore, E., Howson, P., Grainger, M. et al. The role of participatory scenarios in ecological restoration: a systematic map protocol. Environ Evid 11, 23 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-022-00276-w |
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| Most of the research on this topic has been carried out by higher-income countries in lower-income countries, which suggests green colonialism is occurring. Research interest may be rooted in a desire to impose Western environmentalism and conservation values on non-Western environments. Furthermore, this work has largely taken place in the tropics, the climatic zone with the highest concentration of agroforestry systems. It is necessary to apply greater research efforts to temperate and subtropical zones, so as to determine whether the patterns and processes are the same. Indeed, major agricultural commodities are produced in these climatic zones as well, and it is important to more broadly understand how agroforestry systems function. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Centeno-Alvarado, Diego & Lopes, Ariadna & Arnan, Xavier. (2023). Fostering pollination through agroforestry: A global review. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 351. 108478. 10.1016/j.agee.2023.108478. |
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| Our review highlights that, in general, levels of pollination services may be higher in agroforestry systems than in conventional agricultural systems; at the very least, they are equivalent in the two system types. However, it remains rare to encounter studies that conduct direct comparisons. We call for more research that tackles this question experimentally, which should provide solid scientific evidence that agroforestry systems are a much more sustainable alternative. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Centeno-Alvarado, Diego & Lopes, Ariadna & Arnan, Xavier. (2023). Fostering pollination through agroforestry: A global review. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 351. 108478. 10.1016/j.agee.2023.108478. |
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| While many studies have focused on the relation between local management intensity and biodiversity, processes at the landscape scale are often overlooked and remain a knowledge gap. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Koelemeijer, Irena & Tack, Ayco & Zewdie, Beyene & Nemomissa, Sileshi & Hylander, Kristoffer. (2021). Management intensity and landscape configuration affect the potential for woody plant regeneration in coffee agroforestry. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 313. 107384. 10.1016/j.agee.2021.107384. |
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| However, Hanna and Comín (2021) acknowledge that while there is an increase in emphasis on research about the environmental aspects of green infrastructure in relation to SD {Sustainable Development}, there is a lack of studies that also integrate environmental, social and economic dimensions. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Claudia Lucía Rojas Bernal, Isaiah Oluremi Durosaiye, Karim Hadjri, Sandra Karime Zabala Corredor, Ethel Segura Duran, Alejandro Cortés Prieto, Neglected landscapes and green infrastructure: The case of the Limas Creek in Bogotá, Colombia, Geoforum, Volume 136, 2022, Pages 194-210, ISSN 0016-7185, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2022.09.010. |
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| The authors also argue that most of the research about green infrastructure has been published by researchers in the Global North. Therefore, there is a need to apply an integrative approach to research green infrastructure combining the three pillars of SD {Sustainable Development}, as well as to evaluate its role in wellbeing in the Global South. | Desk Study | Scientific literature | Claudia Lucía Rojas Bernal, Isaiah Oluremi Durosaiye, Karim Hadjri, Sandra Karime Zabala Corredor, Ethel Segura Duran, Alejandro Cortés Prieto, Neglected landscapes and green infrastructure: The case of the Limas Creek in Bogotá, Colombia, Geoforum, Volume 136, 2022, Pages 194-210, ISSN 0016-7185, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2022.09.010. |
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