Nature-based solutions knowledge gaps

The knowledge gap database compiles an evidence base for Nature-based Solutions, to support defining research and innovation avenues, and bolster policy and practitioners’ knowledge and knowledge-implementation. This database, first published in 2021 and updated in June 2024, aggregates knowledge gaps and research needs identified through extensive desk research, drawing from academic and non-academic sources. For a detailed explanation of the methodology and analysis behind the 2024 update, please refer to this NetworkNature report. For more context on the initial database see the NetworkNature report on practical, research, and innovation needs.

The updated database includes additional 619 gaps categorised into 32 broad topics and 11 types of approaches. This marks a significant expansion from the initial database, established in 2021, which contained 172 knowledge gaps. Covering gaps from 2017 to March 2024, this database will be continually updated throughout the duration of NetworkNature+.

Displaying 401 - 450 of 619
Gap description Origin of source Source Resource Broad topic Types of approaches
Likewise, more research is needed to quantify the multiple benefits of green
infrastructure in the local context to support public investment. 		Desk Study Scientific literature

Claudia Lucía Rojas Bernal, Isaiah Oluremi Durosaiye, Karim Hadjri, Sandra Karime Zabala Corredor, Ethel Segura Duran, Alejandro Cortés Prieto, Neglected landscapes and green infrastructure: The case of the Limas Creek in Bogotá, Colombia, Geoforum, Volume 136, 2022, Pages 194-210, ISSN 0016-7185, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2022.09.010.
  • Socio-economic benefits
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
More research is needed to systematise the experiences of bottom-up and top-down public participation and to formulate strategies that facilitate co-production processes. Desk Study Scientific literature

Claudia Lucía Rojas Bernal, Isaiah Oluremi Durosaiye, Karim Hadjri, Sandra Karime Zabala Corredor, Ethel Segura Duran, Alejandro Cortés Prieto, Neglected landscapes and green infrastructure: The case of the Limas Creek in Bogotá, Colombia, Geoforum, Volume 136, 2022, Pages 194-210, ISSN 0016-7185, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2022.09.010.
  • Approaches and governance systems for implementation
  • Stakeholder engagement
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
Future research is required to determine how to maximize the integration of NbS principles into these EbA {Ecosystem-based Adaptation} strategies and policy considerations have also been suggested for the future that can build upon the findings of this research. Desk Study Scientific literature

Gauthier, S.; May, B.; Vasseur, L. Ecosystem-Based Adaptation to Protect Avian Species in Coastal Communities in the Greater Niagara Region, Canada. Climate 2021, 9, 91. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli9060091
  • Planning and policy frameworks
  • Ecosystem-based adaptation
Successfully achieving diverse agricultural landscapes according to agroecological principles requires considerably more scientific research to understand the biological interactions and mechanisms that determine and boost ecosystem functioning to improve services at landscape scale, involving farmers in a bottom-up and context-specific approach. Sustainable agroecological management in cultivated landscapes urgently needs indicators that provide quantitative links between landscape patterns and biodiversity. Desk Study Scientific literature

Lenné, J. (2023). Current agricultural diversification strategies are already agroecological. Outlook on Agriculture, 52(3), 273-280. https://doi.org/10.1177/00307270231199796
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • NbS interaction at the landscape scale
  • Monitoring tools
  • Ecosystem-based agricultural management
Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research is needed to place justice at the core of
greening initiatives – from urban planning and stormwater management to climate adaptation, landscape design, transportation, park management and other GI {Green Infrastructure}-related dimensions. 		Desk Study Scientific literature

Zuniga-Teran, Adriana & Gerlak, Andrea & Elder, Alison & Tam, Alexander. (2021). The unjust distribution of urban green infrastructure is just the tip of the iceberg: A systematic review of place-based studies. Environmental Science & Policy. 126. 234-245. 10.1016/j.envsci.2021.10.001.
  • Social cohesion and environmental justice
  • Interdisciplinary studies and methodologies
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
This calls for further studies on governance system diversity and alternative models of governance. Desk Study Scientific literature

Petursson, Jon & Kristofersson, Dadi. (2021). Co-Management of Protected Areas: A Governance System Analysis of Vatnajökull National Park, Iceland. Land. 10. 10.3390/land10070681.
  • Approaches and governance systems for implementation
  • Area-based conservation approaches
Wherefore, more research is needed to determine the factors driving the adoption of CSAF {Climate-Smart Agroforestry} practices in various rural contexts. Since the approach is of diverse forms, varies from one place to another, and can be observed at different scales, any decisions regarding management, policy, or governance should be based on a rigorous analysis of the advantages of different scenarios. Desk Study Scientific literature

Ntawuruhunga, Donatien & Ngowi, Edwin & Mangi, Halima & Salanga, Raymond & Shikuku, Kelvin. (2023). Climate-smart agroforestry systems and practices: A systematic review of what works, what doesn't work, and why. Forest Policy and Economics. 150. 102937.
  • Effectiveness across socio-ecological contexts
  • Approaches and governance systems for implementation
  • Ecosystem-based agricultural management
As such, we suggest future studies to analyze the implications of CSAF {Climate-Smart Agroforestry} on the income and food security of households according to their farming practices and species used (indigenous or exotic cultivars). Desk Study Scientific literature

Ntawuruhunga, Donatien & Ngowi, Edwin & Mangi, Halima & Salanga, Raymond & Shikuku, Kelvin. (2023). Climate-smart agroforestry systems and practices: A systematic review of what works, what doesn't work, and why. Forest Policy and Economics. 150. 102937.
  • Socio-economic benefits
  • Impact assessment
  • Ecosystem-based agricultural management
In regard to the composition of these areas, it would be relevant in further research to demonstrate how heat wave impacts could be reduced by the use of human-introduced permeable materials that do not require irrigation to facilitate evapotranspiration and which are easy to maintain given the climate conditions and water scarcity in the Mediterranean region. Desk Study Scientific literature

Delgado-Capel, M.J.; Cariñanos, P.; Escudero-Viñolo, M. Capacity of Urban Green Infrastructure Spaces to Ameliorate Heat Wave Impacts in Mediterranean Compact Cities: Case Study of Granada (South-Eastern Spain). Land 2023, 12, 1076. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12051076
  • Risks from slow-onset events
  • Direct and indirect benefits for climate mitigation and adaptation
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
We highlight the gap in the use of community science to address issues in resilient protected area research design and management and provide suggestions on how community science could be applied based on prior applications in conservation biology. Desk Study Scientific literature

Binley, Allison & Proctor, Caitlyn & Pither, Richard & Davis, Sierra & Bennett, Joseph. (2021). The unrealized potential of community science to support research on the resilience of protected areas. Conservation Science and Practice. 3. 10.1111/csp2.376.
  • Protected area management
  • Stakeholder engagement
  • Technical references, design standards and guidelines
  • Area-based conservation approaches
We recommend further research to explore responses of functional groups and their links with soil characteristics and other habitat attributes to increase availability of limited data on invertebrate responses to old field restoration. Desk Study Scientific literature

Parkhurst T, Prober SM, Hobbs RJ, Standish RJ. Global meta-analysis reveals incomplete recovery of soil conditions and invertebrate assemblages after ecological restoration in agricultural landscapes. J Appl Ecol. 2022; 59: 358–372. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13852
  • Effectiveness at different geographical scales
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • Ecological restoration
Relationships between restorative actions on ecosystem attributes, such as water resources or carbon sequestration generally require further research. Desk Study Scientific literature

Fu, Bojie & Liu, Yanxu & Meadows, Michael. (2023). Ecological restoration for sustainable development in China. National Science Review. 10. 10.1093/nsr/nwad033.
  • Knowledge base
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • Ecological restoration
The third frontier lies in understanding how ecological and social processes influence landscape patterns after ecological restoration for adaptive management; for example, disturbances, such as warming, irrigation and grazing, further affect the restored landscape and thus impact ecosystem stability. Desk Study Scientific literature

Fu, Bojie & Liu, Yanxu & Meadows, Michael. (2023). Ecological restoration for sustainable development in China. National Science Review. 10. 10.1093/nsr/nwad033.
  • NbS interaction at the landscape scale
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • Ecological restoration
Therefore, to uncover the real contribution of restoration projects to human well-being, establishing the details of ecosystem service flows is an essential research objective. Desk Study Scientific literature

Fu, Bojie & Liu, Yanxu & Meadows, Michael. (2023). Ecological restoration for sustainable development in China. National Science Review. 10. 10.1093/nsr/nwad033.
  • Impacts for health and well-being
  • Ecological restoration
Nevertheless, a synthetic conceptual framework in the social-ecological system context that incorporates co-evolution from the landscape pattern through to sustainable development and incorporating adaptive decision-making in ecological restoration is still lacking. Desk Study Scientific literature

Fu, Bojie & Liu, Yanxu & Meadows, Michael. (2023). Ecological restoration for sustainable development in China. National Science Review. 10. 10.1093/nsr/nwad033.
  • Effectiveness across socio-ecological contexts
  • Planning and policy frameworks
  • Approaches and governance systems for implementation
  • Ecological restoration
Future research on timber focused agri-silviculture systems should consider greater integration of food security factors and outcomes into financial analyses. Desk Study Scientific literature

Duffy, C., Toth, G.G., Hagan, R.P.O. et al. Agroforestry contributions to smallholder farmer food security in Indonesia. Agroforest Syst 95, 1109–1124 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-021-00632-12
  • Technical references, design standards and guidelines
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Further progress on the appreciation of agroforestry-based ecosystem services will require, for example, 1. Enhanced quantification of trees-outside-forests in relation for “forest function” thresholds such as those for rainfall and infiltration. Desk Study Scientific literature

van Noordwijk, M. Agroforestry-Based Ecosystem Services: Reconciling Values of Humans and Nature in Sustainable Development. Land 2021, 10, 699. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10070700
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Further progress on the appreciation of agroforestry-based ecosystem services will require, for example, {...} 2. Distinctions between forest-derived and restoration-based agroforestry practices and the expected societal costs and benefits. Desk Study Scientific literature

van Noordwijk, M. Agroforestry-Based Ecosystem Services: Reconciling Values of Humans and Nature in Sustainable Development. Land 2021, 10, 699. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10070701
  • Cost/benefit evaluations
  • Socio-economic benefits
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Further progress on the appreciation of agroforestry-based ecosystem services will require, for example, {...} 3. Reconciling local, science-based, and policy-oriented ecological knowledge. Desk Study Scientific literature

van Noordwijk, M. Agroforestry-Based Ecosystem Services: Reconciling Values of Humans and Nature in Sustainable Development. Land 2021, 10, 699. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10070702
  • Knowledge base
  • Interdisciplinary studies and methodologies
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Further progress on the appreciation of agroforestry-based ecosystem services will require, for example, {...} 4. Process-level understanding of tree–soil–crop interactions used in bio-economic models and the dependence on tree cover of specific ecosystem services in each context. Desk Study Scientific literature

van Noordwijk, M. Agroforestry-Based Ecosystem Services: Reconciling Values of Humans and Nature in Sustainable Development. Land 2021, 10, 699. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10070703
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Further progress on the appreciation of agroforestry-based ecosystem services will require, for example, {...} 6. Further landscape-scale studies of biodiversity impacts beyond plot-level effects on average farms. Desk Study Scientific literature

van Noordwijk, M. Agroforestry-Based Ecosystem Services: Reconciling Values of Humans and Nature in Sustainable Development. Land 2021, 10, 699. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10070705
  • NbS interaction at the landscape scale
  • Impact assessment
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Further progress on the appreciation of agroforestry-based ecosystem services will require, for example, {...} 7. Location specificity of trade-off management in the food–energy–water nexus and in biodiversity, with increased interest in disease risks outside and within agroforestry. Desk Study Scientific literature

van Noordwijk, M. Agroforestry-Based Ecosystem Services: Reconciling Values of Humans and Nature in Sustainable Development. Land 2021, 10, 699. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10070706
  • Synergies and trade-offs between goals
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Further progress on the appreciation of agroforestry-based ecosystem services will require, for example, {...} 9. Realistic and critical impact assessments of agroforestry-enhancing projects in local contexts, in view of livelihood strategies and tactics that include migration and grasping new economic opportunities. Desk Study Scientific literature

van Noordwijk, M. Agroforestry-Based Ecosystem Services: Reconciling Values of Humans and Nature in Sustainable Development. Land 2021, 10, 699. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10070708
  • Impact assessment
  • Socio-economic benefits
  • Social cohesion and environmental justice
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Further progress on the appreciation of agroforestry-based ecosystem services will require, for example, {...} 10. Use of participatory methods in scenario development and reimagining desirable futures a local scale, reconciled with understanding agent behavior through “sociality” research. Desk Study Scientific literature

van Noordwijk, M. Agroforestry-Based Ecosystem Services: Reconciling Values of Humans and Nature in Sustainable Development. Land 2021, 10, 699. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10070709
  • Stakeholder engagement
  • Approaches and governance systems for implementation
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Most research has, however, been framed in an instrumental ecosystem services perspective, where the ecological subsystem serves the social system, rather than as a two-way relational one, where stewardship enhances and broadens relational values. Desk Study Scientific literature

van Noordwijk, M. Agroforestry-Based Ecosystem Services: Reconciling Values of Humans and Nature in Sustainable Development. Land 2021, 10, 699. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10070699
  • Valuation tools
  • Knowledge base
 -
A significant research gap is evident in protected areas, where view and soundscape management have mostly been discussed separately. Desk Study Scientific literature

Xu, Xiaoqing & Wu, Hong. (2021). Audio-visual Interactions Enhance Soundscape Perception in China’s National Parks. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 61. 127090. 10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127090.
  • Protected area management
  • Approaches and governance systems for implementation
  • Area-based conservation approaches
Future research and practice should tackle the challenges of identifying the suite of cost-effective landscape interventions at strategic locations that may result in the highest public appreciation. Desk Study Scientific literature

Xu, Xiaoqing & Wu, Hong. (2021). Audio-visual Interactions Enhance Soundscape Perception in China’s National Parks. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening. 61. 127090. 10.1016/j.ufug.2021.127090.
  • Cost/benefit evaluations
  • Effectiveness across socio-ecological contexts
  • Approaches and governance systems for implementation
 -
Future GI {Green Infrastructure} knowledge systems work should expand datasets to include additional methods, such as surveys (for example, social network analysis of institutional actors), as well as work to include the perspectives of residents and community groups. Desk Study Scientific literature

Matsler, Marissa & Miller, Thaddeus & Groffman, Peter. (2021). The Eco-Techno Spectrum: Exploring Knowledge Systems’ Challenges in Green Infrastructure Management. Urban Planning. 6. 49-62. 10.17645/up.v6i1.3491.
  • Knowledge base
  • Stakeholder engagement
  • Approaches and governance systems for implementation
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
Alongside the positive opportunities presented by a multispecies approach to green infrastructure, the threats must be equally researched and mitigated within the MIGI {Microboime-Inspired Green Infrastructure} framework. Desk Study Scientific literature

Robinson, Jake M. & Watkins, Harry & Man, I. & Liddicoat, Craig & Cameron, R. & Parker, B. & Cruz, M. & Meagher, L.. (2021). Microbiome-inspired green infrastructure (MIGI) : a bioscience roadmap for urban ecosystem health. Architectural Research Quarterly. 25.
  • Knowledge base
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
Furthermore, we recommend that updated lists of protected species for each country are essential, as is the need for continuous and systematic optimization of global PA {Protected Area} networks to increase the effectiveness of biodiversity conservation worldwide. Desk Study Scientific literature

Mi, Chunrong & Song, Kai & Ma, Liang & Xu, Ji-Liang & Sun, Bao-Jun & Sun, Yue-Hua & Liu, Jianguo & Du, Wei-Guo. (2023). Optimizing protected areas to boost the conservation of key protected wildlife in China. The Innovation. 4. 10.1016/j.xinn.2023.100424.
  • Protected area management
  • Monitoring tools
  • Area-based conservation approaches
This lack of interdisciplinary knowledge transaction limits the efficiency of multifunctional urban environmental planning. Desk Study Scientific literature

Joeri Morpurgo, Roy P. Remme, Peter M. Van Bodegom, CUGIC: The Consolidated Urban Green Infrastructure Classification for assessing ecosystem services and biodiversity, Landscape and Urban Planning, Volume 234, 2023, 104726, ISSN 0169-2046, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2023.104726.
  • Interdisciplinary studies and methodologies
  • Planning and policy frameworks
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
This highlights some of the broader issues pertaining to marine social science. True interdisciplinary research and associated methodological innovations are needed to speed up progress in this field. Desk Study Scientific literature

JB Mann-Lang, GM Branch, BQ Mann, KJ Sink, SP Kirkman & R Adams (2021) Social and economic effects of marine protected areas in South Africa, with recommendations for future assessments, African Journal of Marine Science, 43:3, 367-387, DOI: 10.2989/1814232X.2021.1961166
  • Interdisciplinary studies and methodologies
  • Area-based conservation approaches
Research on perceptions can also help to identify latent social effects which can then be addressed. Desk Study Scientific literature

JB Mann-Lang, GM Branch, BQ Mann, KJ Sink, SP Kirkman & R Adams (2021) Social and economic effects of marine protected areas in South Africa, with recommendations for future assessments, African Journal of Marine Science, 43:3, 367-387, DOI: 10.2989/1814232X.2021.1961167
  • Socio-economic benefits
  • Valuation tools
  • Area-based conservation approaches
Therefore, a better understanding of human psychology and behaviour, including the knowledge, perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, values and actions of multiple stakeholders, should become an essential feature of future research in MPAs {Marine Protected Areas}. Without a better understanding of people, why they do what they do and how to better support pro-environmental behaviour, many of the challenges facing MPA management will remain unsolved. Fundamentally, the effectiveness of MPAs in the future is likely to depend as much on environmental social scientists’ understanding of people as on natural scientists’ understanding of ecology. Desk Study Scientific literature

JB Mann-Lang, GM Branch, BQ Mann, KJ Sink, SP Kirkman & R Adams (2021) Social and economic effects of marine protected areas in South Africa, with recommendations for future assessments, African Journal of Marine Science, 43:3, 367-387, DOI: 10.2989/1814232X.2021.1961168
  • Social cohesion and environmental justice
  • Effectiveness across socio-ecological contexts
  • Valuation tools
  • Area-based conservation approaches
There is a need to widen the research agenda to include a focus on other effects, including tourism and educational opportunities, and to add empirical studies. Desk Study Scientific literature

JB Mann-Lang, GM Branch, BQ Mann, KJ Sink, SP Kirkman & R Adams (2021) Social and economic effects of marine protected areas in South Africa, with recommendations for future assessments, African Journal of Marine Science, 43:3, 367-387, DOI: 10.2989/1814232X.2021.1961169
  • Synergies and trade-offs between goals
  • Impact assessment
  • Area-based conservation approaches
There is clearly a need to build support for a more inclusive research agenda that will ensure that the social aspects of MPAs {Marine Protected Areas} receive the same research attention as their ecological counterparts. Desk Study Scientific literature

JB Mann-Lang, GM Branch, BQ Mann, KJ Sink, SP Kirkman & R Adams (2021) Social and economic effects of marine protected areas in South Africa, with recommendations for future assessments, African Journal of Marine Science, 43:3, 367-387, DOI: 10.2989/1814232X.2021.1961170
  • Knowledge base
  • Planning and policy frameworks
  • Protected area management
 -
Traditional knowledge and scientific research do differ, but both have a role to play in building an understanding of the complex reality of ecological systems. In the same way, different research paradigms can be explored to enhance social and economic research within MPAs {Marine Protected Areas}. Widening research approaches would contribute to building a better understanding of the multiple effects of MPAs on different stakeholders and at different spatial and temporal scales. Desk Study Scientific literature

JB Mann-Lang, GM Branch, BQ Mann, KJ Sink, SP Kirkman & R Adams (2021) Social and economic effects of marine protected areas in South Africa, with recommendations for future assessments, African Journal of Marine Science, 43:3, 367-387, DOI: 10.2989/1814232X.2021.1961171
  • Socio-economic benefits
  • Effectiveness at different geographical scales
  • Effectiveness at different time scales
  • Area-based conservation approaches
It is recommended that a clear methodology be developed to enable stakeholders to collaboratively identify current and possible future social and economic effects. This approach to a more impact-orientated evaluation is in line with international trends that seek to promote equity in governance and management. Once effects have been identified, useful objectives and meaningful indicators can be formulated. These need to be tailored for the circumstances of each MPA {Marine Protected Area}, and we advocate that pilot studies be used to refine the procedure. All objectives and indicators should consider local indigenous knowledge as well as scientific information and be based on the specific needs of the various communities associated with the MPA and should be developed in consultation with all stakeholders Desk Study Scientific literature

JB Mann-Lang, GM Branch, BQ Mann, KJ Sink, SP Kirkman & R Adams (2021) Social and economic effects of marine protected areas in South Africa, with recommendations for future assessments, African Journal of Marine Science, 43:3, 367-387, DOI: 10.2989/1814232X.2021.1961172
  • Stakeholder engagement
  • Methodologies and tools for systematic evaluation
  • Protected area management
  • Area-based conservation approaches
Now that there is a systematic map of how participatory scenarios are being used, further research is needed to understand the effectiveness of participatory scenarios in restoration planning. Due to the wide range of the publication base and lack of this information within publications, this would need to be done by conducting primary research into the included studies in this review with study teams and the restoration decision-makers. Desk Study Scientific literature

Durrant, E., Howson, P., Puttick, B. et al. Existing evidence on the use of participatory scenarios in ecological restoration: a systematic map. Environ Evid 12, 27 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-023-00314-1
  • Stakeholder engagement
  • Effectiveness compared to conventional approaches
  • Planning and policy frameworks
  • Ecological restoration
Further analysis of included texts using their framework may better indicate how participatory studies are and how likely they are to achieve positive outcomes for restoration planning. To improve the evidence base, future participatory scenarios should evaluate their effectiveness for scenarios in the restoration planning process and their success in meeting their participatory objectives. Desk Study Scientific literature

Durrant, E., Howson, P., Puttick, B. et al. Existing evidence on the use of participatory scenarios in ecological restoration: a systematic map. Environ Evid 12, 27 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-023-00314-1
  • Stakeholder engagement
  • Planning and policy frameworks
  • Impact assessment
  • Ecological restoration
In addition, there is a need for further knowledge on the need for data at different spatial and temporal scales, to better understand multifunctionality at different spatial scales to be able to investigate how multifunctionality within the BGI {Blue-Green Infrastructure} can be distributed in space and time. This may help to identify priorities for enhancement of necessary ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation. Desk Study Scientific literature

J. Sörensen, A.S. Persson, J. Alkan Olsson, A data management framework for strategic urban planning using blue-green infrastructure, Journal of Environmental Management, Volume 299, 2021, 113658, ISSN 0301-4797, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113658.
  • Effectiveness at different geographical scales
  • Effectiveness at different time scales
  • Technical references, design standards and guidelines
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
The lack of knowledge on the functional ecology of native species is a major challenge for trait-based restoration projects, especially in the tropics. Desk Study Scientific literature

Loureiro, N., Mantuano, D., Manhães, A. et al. Use of the trait-based approach in ecological restoration studies: a global review. Trees 37, 1287–1297 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-023-02439-11
  • Relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions and ecosystem services
  • Ecological restoration
Future researchers could also concentrate on endemic or threatened species to devise strategies to halt species decline or lessen extinction risk. For such work, assessments of new taxa against the IUCN Red List (https://www.iucnredlist.org/) criteria might be effective, since current assessments are biased toward vertebrates, with limited information available, for example, on insects. Desk Study Scientific literature

Shawan Chowdhury, Shofiul Alam, Mahzabin Muzahid Labi, Nahla Khan, Md. Rokonuzzaman, Dipto Biswas, Tasmia Tahea, Sharif A. Mukul, Richard A. Fuller, Protected areas in South Asia: Status and prospects, Science of The Total Environment, 811, 2022, 152316, ISSN 0048-9697,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152316.
  • Knowledge base
  • Planning and policy frameworks
 -
Four questions remain unanswered: what the optimal EE {Ecological engineering} solutions are for stabilizing EMCs {Eroded Muddy Coasts} ; how the EE solutions work toward stabilizing EMCs ; what elements (ecological processes or engineered principles) should be prioritized for designing the EE solutions; and what lessons should be learned from the use of the EE models for controlling the erosion. Desk Study Scientific literature

Tien HV, Tuan Anh N, Tan Phong N, Minh Nhut ML. Ecological Engineering and Restoration of Eroded Muddy Coasts in South East Asia: Knowledge Gaps and Recommendations. Sustainability. 2021; 13(3):1248. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031248
  • Knowledge base
  • Technical references, design standards and guidelines
  • Ecological engineering
Hence, knowledge gaps about SOC {Soil Organic Carbon} storage and nutrient cycling in agroforestry systems remain. Desk Study Scientific literature

Jonas P. Steinfeld, Felix J.J.A. Bianchi, Jorge Luiz Locatelli, Rodnei Rizzo, Maria Eduarda Bispo de Resende, Maria V. Ramos Ballester, Carlos E.P. Cerri, Alberto C.C. Bernardi, Rachel E. Creamer, Increasing complexity of agroforestry systems benefits nutrient cycling and mineral-associated organic carbon storage, in south-eastern Brazil,
Geoderma, Volume 440, 2023, 116726, ISSN 0016-7061, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116726.
  • Direct and indirect benefits for climate mitigation and adaptation
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Work is urgently required to understand the extent to which urban ecosystems are threatened and what tools are most effective at safeguarding them. Desk Study Scientific literature

Robinson, Jake M. & Watkins, Harry & Man, I. & Liddicoat, Craig & Cameron, R. & Parker, B. & Cruz, M. & Meagher, L.. (2021). Microbiome-inspired green infrastructure (MIGI) : a bioscience roadmap for urban ecosystem health. Architectural Research Quarterly. 25.
  • Methodologies and tools for systematic evaluation
  • Knowledge base
  • Blue & Green infrastructure
However, despite challenges, more systematic longitudinal approaches to studying the same agroforestry systems over time and documenting how they aid adaptation to specific, real-time events should be a focus of future work and may be captured through the establishment of long-term research sites and flexible funding sources. Desk Study Scientific literature

Amy Quandt, Henry Neufeldt, Kayla Gorman, Climate change adaptation through agroforestry: opportunities and gaps, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, Volume 60, 2023, 101244, ISSN 1877-3435, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2022.101244. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877343522000963)
  • Effectiveness at different time scales
  • Direct and indirect benefits for climate mitigation and adaptation
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Most recent work has instead focused solely on biophysical (9 papers) or socioeconomic (11 papers) aspects of adaptation, while other work has assessed farmer perspectives of biophysical benefits but not collected biophysical data (5 papers). Thus, to understand the biophysical and social contributions of agroforestry for climate change adaptation, future research should focus on integrated, convergent, and interdisciplinary approaches. Desk Study Scientific literature

Amy Quandt, Henry Neufeldt, Kayla Gorman, Climate change adaptation through agroforestry: opportunities and gaps, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, Volume 60, 2023, 101244, ISSN 1877-3435, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2022.101244. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877343522000963)
  • Direct and indirect benefits for climate mitigation and adaptation
  • Interdisciplinary studies and methodologies
  • Ecosystem-based water management
While recent scholarship is moving beyond general agroforestry benefits to specific contributions of agroforestry to climate change adaptation, more research is needed to understand the nuanced ways that agroforestry can contribute to adaptation in various socioeconomic, biophysical, and geographic contexts. Desk Study Scientific literature

Amy Quandt, Henry Neufeldt, Kayla Gorman, Climate change adaptation through agroforestry: opportunities and gaps, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, Volume 60, 2023, 101244, ISSN 1877-3435, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2022.101244. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877343522000963)
  • Effectiveness across socio-ecological contexts
  • Effectiveness at different geographical scales
  • Direct and indirect benefits for climate mitigation and adaptation
  • Ecosystem-based water management
Improving standardization in AFS {Agroforestry Systems} research therefore needs to become a priority in the scientific community. This could be achieved, for instance, through development of a set of (EUwide) guidelines based on the existing sampling protocol formulated by (Cardinael et al., 2017), which is sufficiently flexible to account for high variability of agroforestry systems in terms of size, species composition and planting design/structure. Guidelines could include sampling depth recommendations and minimum data requirement for soil characteristics such as bulk density and soil texture; they could be applied to screen studies for future meta-analyses used to inform national and international policies. Desk Study Scientific literature

Karolina Golicz, Sonoko Bellingrath-Kimura, Lutz Breuer, Ariani C. Wartenberg, Carbon accounting in European agroforestry systems – Key research gaps and data needs, Current Research in Environmental Sustainability, Volume 4, 2022, 100134, ISSN 2666-0490, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2022.100134. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666049022000123)
  • Technical references, design standards and guidelines
  • Ecosystem-based water management